There’s a New Sheriff in Town Cultural Values in In the Heat of the Night - Literature Essay Samples

Norman Jewison’s In the Heat of the Night (1967) is a thrilling murder mystery set in a small Mississippi town in the late 1960s, shortly after the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed. The story follows a black detective, Virgil Tibbs, who is accused of murdering a prominent industrialist who had come to the town to build a factory. However, Tibbs reveals that he is actually a talented detective from Philadelphia, and the town sheriff convinces Tibbs to stay and work the case after he discovers that the local department has arrested the wrong man. He chooses to do this with the knowledge that he will face a great amount of racial prejudice while working the case. In the Heat of the Night won five Academy Awards, including Best Picture, in a year with extremely fierce competition. The film’s commercial success, combined with its critical acclaim, signified that American audiences were interested in social problem films and beginning to reject some longstanding cultural n orms. The Heat of the Night affirms the value that the American North is culturally and intellectually superior to the South while it criticizes the idea that white Americans are more intelligent and talented than their black counterparts. At the time of this film’s release, American literary and artistic works had long supported the idea that Northern United States was more culturally advanced and less prejudiced than the Southern United States, and In the Heat of the Night followed this cultural rule. The citizens of Sparta, Mississippi, where the film takes place, have a strong sense of local pride. This is evidenced when Ted Ulam, the funeral director, says â€Å"I could give him a nicer service right here in Sparta than he could ever get out there in Chicago, and at half the price too,† about the deceased, wealthy Chicagoan industrialist, Philip Colbert. They can easily identify outsiders as well. When Tibbs corrects the sheriff’s grammar in their first conversation, Gillespie calls him â€Å"a northern boy.† This demonstrates Jewison’s view that not only are Northerners more well-spoken, and thus better educated than their Southern counterparts, but also that the people of Missi ssippi do not want to learn to be more sophisticated. However, this is the most benign example of regional differences in the film. The Spartan townspeople’s local pride extends only to the white citizens who originate from there, and they make no attempts to hide their racism. Some townspeople go as far as to embrace it. The town thugs, who appropriately have a Confederate flag license plate on the front of their car, chase Tibbs down and through the town’s garbage dump where several white men were scavenging through the burning trash. When the racist men corner Tibbs in a railway house, one of them threatening to whip him with a chain in a clear reference to slavery. These occurrences overtly demonstrate the film’s message of the South being inferior to the North, where the audience is led to believe that such events would never take place, but none do as strongly as the scene at Eric Endicott’s plantation. One of the most salient scenes in demonstrating the backwardness of the South occurs when Gillespie and Tibbs visit Endicott’s cotton plantation to question him about the murder. As they drive up, they see black workers hand-picking cotton and Gillespie remarks, â€Å"None of that for you, huh, Virgil?† In Philadelphia, a black man can become a detective, but in Sparta, they seem doomed to work in the fields. There is a blackface lawn statue in front of the mansion, and the detectives are greeted by a black butler. When they meet Endicott in the greenhouse, he and Tibbs discuss species of orchids, another subject that the well-educated Tibbs has an impressive amount of knowledge about. Endicott finds that amusing because, â€Å"like the Negro, they need care and feedin and cultivatin, and that takes time.† Tibbs diverts the conversation to the murder and Endicott slaps him for suggesting that he could be guilty of murder, which Tibbs shockingly responds to by sla pping him back even harder. Endicott is scandalized, proclaiming that â€Å"There was a time when I could have had you shot!† Later on, the mayor questions Gillespie about why he sided with Tibbs in this instance, saying that â€Å"The last chief we had, he’d have shot Tibbs one second after he slapped Endicott, claim self-defense.† Both men treat the concept of shooting an innocent black man in the name of self-defense almost as standard practice rather than as a hate crime. This has a certain dark irony when one considers that Tibbs was merely defending himself. This idea that the North is more culturally evolved than the South has remained pervasive in media (regardless of whether it can be factually proven true or not). Although Jewison affirms one cultural ideal valuing a certain group over another (i.e. Northerners over Southerners), he refutes another. In the 1960s, it was still the view of many Americans that although black citizens had been granted equal rights under the law, they were not as qualified for or deserving of ambitious careers, a belief which In the Heat of the Night seeks to disprove. This film demonstrates that when given the same opportunities as white citizens, African-Americans can be just as successful as them, and sometimes even more so. The first occurrence of racial profiling occurs very early in the narrative when Officer Wood finds an unfamiliar black man—Tibbs—quietly sitting while waiting for a train and immediately pins him as a prime suspect for Colbert’s murder solely on the basis of his skin color and the fact that he was carrying a significant amount of money. Wood takes Tibbs back to the station for questioning, and when Gillespie asks Tibbs about why he has so much money in his wallet, he is shocked to learn that he makes $162.39 per week. Upon Tibbs’ insistence, Gilles pie calls his chief in Philadelphia and is similarly taken aback upon hearing that he is the department’s â€Å"number one homicide expert.† However, the sheriff is forced to accept that Tibbs has more experience than him when he corrects the coroner on Colbert’s time of death. This is not the only time that Tibbs proves the white officers wrong by slowing down and assessing the situation logically. The next morning, he inspects new suspect Harvey Oberst’s handcuffed wrists and hand and finds that he is left-handed, so he could not be the murderer based on the victim’s wounds, and that Oberst had only stolen Colbert’s wallet after the murder. Gillespie is embarrassed to have been shown up again and comments on his name, Virgil, in the same breath as referring to him with the n-word. He asks Tibbs, â€Å"What do they call you up there [in Philadelphia]?† He receives the famous answer, â€Å"They call me Mister Tibbs.† Tibbs has a job that beckons respect, which he receives up North, and he rightfully asks for the same treatment from an inferior detective in Sparta as well. The sheriff eventually changes his views, but it takes him spending time with Tibbs while solving a case together to do so. When Tibbs asks Gillespie to keep him on the case so that he can pursue Endicott, Gillespie accuses Tibbs of reverse discrimination and comes to a realization that they both just want to do their jobs, even though they have their personal biases. He says to Tibbs, â€Å"Man, you’re just like the rest of us. Ain’t ya?† The final scene completes Gillespie’s emotional transition from begrudging acceptance of Tibbs to genuine respect. He carries Tibbs’ luggage for him to the train station and offers him a handshake and a goodbye in the form of â€Å"You take care now, ya hear?† as he sees him off. Perhaps the most interesting feature of this film is that racism is not the focus of the plot, but it is an ever-pervasive aspect of it. By casting a popular actor and marketing the film as a whodunit, Jewison may have been more successful in getting his message across by catching audiences off guard and forcing them to confront the realities of racial disparity in the United States and their own prejudices. In the Heat of the Night does not offer a grand solution to the race relation issues in America, suggesting only that we begin by respecting one another at the individual level. Additionally, it does not gloss over the dark realities of the Deep South, choosing instead to represent them to audiences as they were. The legacy of Jewison’s film has lived on far past 1967, as it spawned several sequels and a television show and is still considered a must-watch film, and it will likely remain an important portrait of American culture and history for decades to come.

Racial Profiling And The American Civil Liberties Union Essay

The concept of racial profiling has its wide range of definitions. According to the American Civil Liberties Union, racial profiling means â€Å"the discriminatory practice by law enforcement officials of targeting individuals for suspicion of crime based on the individual s race, ethnicity, religion or national origin.† In other words, racial profiling has its assumptions that particular individuals are more likely to be involved in transgression or unlawful activities based on individual’s race or background. Racial profiling does not just exist today; it thrives and mostly propels a brutalizing message and inhuman misconception to citizens of the United States whom they are pre-judged by the color of their skin. The primary cause of profiling is racism or race-related discrimination. Unfortunately, this unwarranted approach is now commonly used by law enforcement officers, even though it could be both unjust and unconstitutional. Not only does it violate the core pri nciples of this country, but it can be dangerous and deadly because it threatens our privacy and security. It is also a threat to racial equality, where many influential and prominent people have fought for to accomplish. Although many heroic activist leaders have ended racial division to its certain extent, yet many African-Americans all over America still face the rigid unequal world because of unjustifiable race-related tragedies that tremendously affects African-Americans. On August 28, 1963, in I Have aShow MoreRelatedRacial Profiling And The American Civil Liberties Union1081 Words   |  5 Pagestruth. The pain and misery caused by racial profiling greatly outweighs the positive aspects. Racial profiling is vastly different from criminal profiling. Racial profiling, as stated by the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), â€Å"refers to the discriminatory practice by law enforcement officials of targeting individuals for suspicion of crime based on the individual s race, ethnicity, religion or national origin† (â€Å"The Reality of Racial Profiling†). Racial profiling is the immediate grouping of a certainRead MoreRacial Profiling And The American Civil Liberties Union998 Words   |  4 PagesRacial profiling† can hold a variety of meanings. As defined by the American Civil Liberties Union, however, racial profiling is the discriminatory practice by law enforcement officials of targeting individuals for suspicion of crime based on the individual s race, ethnicity, religion or national origin (â€Å"Racial Profiling†). Every day, blacks are stopped much more frequently for aimless searches and minor infractions than their white counterparts . Several African Americans share experiences likeRead MoreRacial Profiling And The American Civil Liberties Union Essay2023 Words   |  9 Pagesâ€Å"Racial Profiling† The concept of racial profiling has its wide range of definitions. According to the American Civil Liberties Union, racial profiling means â€Å"the discriminatory practice by law enforcement officials of targeting individuals for suspicion of crime based on the individual s race, ethnicity, religion or national origin.† In other words, racial profiling has its assumptions that particular individuals are more likely to be involved in transgression or unlawful activities based on individual’sRead MoreLiterature Review On Racial Profiiling1391 Words   |  6 PagesThis essay reviews the literature on racial profiling in Courtelaney Pass. Racial profiling is a policing method that has increasingly become scrutinized over the years in Courtelaney Pass. An overwhelming number of individuals in the city are subject to racial profiling. Contrary to 55% white, 38% black, and 7% Hispanic, the blacks and out of town travelers passing through receive 87% of the speeding tickets. In addition, racial profiling can occur to women and men, all age groups are used againstRead MoreRacism : The Criminal Justice System1040 Words   |  5 PagesMr. Andrew Bagley PLS 213 American Federal Government-Online 25th November 2015 Racism in Our Criminal Justice System There are many different types of unlawful racism in the criminal justice system. It goes from back in the early part of our great nation’s birth to the killing of Martin Luther King Jr. to Ferguson, Missouri. The path that racism takes is from old time’s point of view. The way to clear up racism in our criminal justice system is simple and easy. Americans need to fully understandRead MoreRacial Profiling1056 Words   |  5 Pages There has always been racial profiling in our history. The problem here is that at some point the ones who are oppressed and discriminated sooner o later will claim why they are treated unequally. There are many examples around the world, but one only has to take a look at how the American society has been designed to realize the great difference between individuals. It was even normal and acceptable to see these differences during the creation of this nation because the ones who supposedly hadRead MorePolice Brutality and Profiling1196 Words   |  5 Pageswere signing up for so they should not be pitied. Police officers face dangers everyday but profiling and racially motivated brutality is not justifiable and officers should be severely punished for committing these crimes. To begin with police officers faces more dangers than the average American citizen, â€Å"generally police are about three times as likely to be killed on the job as the average American† (Blako). â€Å"Some of the most important hazards police face are assaults, vehicle crashes, beingRead MoreProfiling Immigration in the U.S Essay examples1429 Words   |  6 PagesImmigration profiling has become a recent issue in the United States. This is primarily due to the fact that â€Å"the immigrant population in the United States grew considerably over the past 50 years† (Garcia 1). States are enacting laws that grant law enforcement the right to profile any one person that they believe is an illegal immigrant. On April 23, 2010, Arizona’s â€Å"Governor Brewer issued Executive Order 2010-09 requiring the Arizona Peace Officers Standards and Training Board to establish trainingRead MoreRacial Profiling in Different Ways791 Words   |  3 PagesRacial Profiling has been used by law enforcement officials from early 60’s during the civil rights movement. The term â€Å"racial profiling† which was introduced to criticize abusive police practices against people of different race, ethnicity or national origin. One must assess how to understand the practice, and how to keep it distinct from other issues. Racial profiling is defined as â€Å"any police-initiated action that relies on the race, ethnicity, or national origin, rather than the behavior of anRead Morestop and frisk1498 Words   |  6 Pagespolice officers are suppose to be protected and help us out when needed. The reality of it is police officers are out here on the beat violating are constitutional rights. Stop and frisk was to help fight crime on the streets but all it caused was racial profiling by officers everyday for the last twelve years. Stop and frisk has been used and abused and young adults are afraid to leave their house because they know they will be harassed for no good reason. Stop and frisk has caused a war between the officers

Critical analysis essay on Good People by David Foster...

Sandra Cartica ENG 221 – CSS Prof. Donnelly 11-11-2014 Critical Analysis Essay – â€Å"Good People† The Battle Within â€Å"Good People†, written by David Foster Wallace, and published in the February 2007 issue of The New Yorker magazine is a story about two young Christians who are faced with the issue of an unplanned pregnancy. The critic reviewing this short story is Matt Bucher. He takes a psychological/philosophical approach and references the division and dichotomy within the story. Religious imagery is highlighted as well as the struggle and divisions within ourselves. Outwardly, this story seems focused on â€Å"to abort† or â€Å"not to abort,† but in reality, it is a story about our inner battle between good and evil; division and union.†¦show more content†¦Two-hearted, a hypocrite to yourself either way† (Wallace 8). In my opinion, young people probably face this problem every day and yet, I would bet that few of them have felt this deeply. Lane and Sheri want to please their God, but Lane struggles with the issue of loving her or not, and She ri struggles with the shame if she aborts or the shame if she keeps the baby. Through prayer, and his belief in a loving compassionate God, Lane has an epiphany and sees into Sheri’s heart. He understands that through his belief in a personal relationship with Jesus Christ, love conquers all. He asks himself†¦ what would Jesus do? This is a question not many people ask themselves these days. During Lane’s epiphany or as Wallace puts it, â€Å"moment of grace† Lane realizes he is â€Å"not a hypocrite, just broken and split off like all men† (Wallace 9). The vision in Sheri’s heart is filled with love for her child and her God. She unfreezes him and releases him of all responsibilities and hopes he finishes his college education so that he can have a life filled with â€Å"joy and good things† (Wallace 10). Lane understands this is a lie. Lane’s heart has been cleansed with love and knows Sheri should not and will not raise their child alone. He questions whetherShow MoreRelatedRace Film : The Great And Only Essay10250 Words   |  41 PagesChapter One Race Films as a Genre in American Cinema â€Å"Most people pronounced his last name ‘Mee-show,’ though some who knew him insist it was ‘Mi-shaw.’ The correct pronunciation of his name is only the beginning of the ambiguities and mysteries associated with Oscar Micheaux† Patrick Mulligan—Oscar Micheaux: The Great and Only: The Life of America s First Black Filmmaker From the very beginning of the early stages in American cinema, African Americans had a presence on the silver screen. TheRead MoreEthical Misconduct7357 Words   |  30 Pagesincreased, with evaluation of employees performance based on ethical conduct being the only element to decrease since 2003. Creating a strong ethical environment should be a top priority of all companies, Harned says. 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Serious in intent, he has striven both to illuminate practice and to provide ways of improving it. Although always appealing to his economic understandings, he has been open to a wide variety of otherRead MoreProject Mgmt296381 Words   |  1186 PagesResource leveling 7.2 Setting a cost and time baseline schedule (1.3.5) [8.1.3] 6.5.2.3 Critical chain method Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Reducing Project Duration Leadership Chapter 2 Organization Strategy and Project Selection 1.4 Projects and programs (.2) 1.4.1 Managing the portfolio 1.4.3 Strategy and projects 2.3 Stakeholders and review boards 12.1 RFP’s and vendor selection (.3.4.5) 11.2.2.6 SWAT analysis 6.5.2.7 Schedule compression 9.4.2.5 Leadership skills G.1 Project leadership 10.1Read MoreRastafarian79520 Words   |  319 Pagesperiod corresponds with so much that was happening around the world. 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Opposing School Uniforms Essay examples - 1684 Words

School Uniforms In 1993, Will Rogers Middle School in California’s Long Beach County School District began discussing the idea of a school-wide uniform policy. That fall, Will Rogers became the first school in Long Beach County to have a mandatory uniform policy. Other schools in the district soon followed drawing national attention, including a personal visit from then President Clinton. Recent memories of school shootings around the nation caused President Clinton to urge other school districts to move to uniforms in his 1996 State of the Union Address. This started a seemingly endless debate over school uniforms in public schools. In order to be legal, every uniform policy has to have an option to not participate. Students that†¦show more content†¦Uniforms definitely have some good qualities, but they are not the answer to all the problems in America’s schools. Julia Wilkins wrote â€Å"The Answer to Violence in American Schools or a Cheap Educational Reform?† in the March 1999 issue of The Humanist to share her views regarding the on-going debate over uniforms in public schools. Through my research, her article has proven to be an authority on the subject. She did an excellent job representing the views of her side, she covers every point laid out in the Manual on School Uniforms put out by the government. Uniform proponents use more subtle persuasion to argue their point. This can be seen fairly clearly in two pro-uniform articles: One by Pat Wingert, the other by Jo Beth McDaniel. The Wilkins’ article begins by pointing out a problem with violence in our public schools: â€Å"Media stories about a nationwide school epidemic, in which assaults on teachers are frequent and children are routinely killed over designer clothing, have been a constant over the past few years† (Wilkins par. 1). Wilkins then moves on to providing background information on the adoption of school uniforms by Long Beach County School District in 1995. She establishes Long Beach County’s actions as a turning point in the school uniform debate: â€Å"Since then, school uniforms have been upheld as the long-awaited policy tool for solving the crisis of school violence† (Wilkins par. 4). SheShow MoreRelatedSchool Uniforms are Essential: Dealing With Discrimination and Upholding Individuality1519 Words   |  7 Pagesthe psychological level of self-identification, bring this deceptive notion of fashion and social classes to school. The problem comes when this trend affects the performance of students and their personal lives. We all remember our days back when the talk was â€Å"Who are the jocks, the cheerleaders, the rick kids, the geeks, the losers, etcetera?† Believe it or not, the status quo in schools is always composed of them. These cliques have identities exclusive for each. Students who do not look, act,Read MoreIs it Good to Wear School Uniforms?673 Words   |  3 PagesSchool uniform has been a controversial issue in the United States. A lot of researchers have debated for centuries on whether or not wearing a school uniform is good. In the United States, most public schools do not require students to wear uniforms. However, students are required to wear uniform in private schools. While in most of the countries, either in a public or private school, required to wear uniforms. They even have summer and winter uniforms according to the weather. Most of the peopleRead MoreDoes Wearing School Uniform Have An Influence On Stud ent s Behavior?927 Words   |  4 PagesResearch Question: Does wearing school uniform have an influence on student’s behaviour? Review of Literature: The debate regarding whether the students should have to wear school uniform has been prevalent for many years. For example, some people insist that wearing uniform can really make a difference in a student’s academic performance, while others do not. There are still a lot school boards and parents arguing about it. Wearing school uniform has its advantages and disadvantages, but the pointRead MoreSchool Uniforms: Dealing With Discrimination Upholding Individuality1647 Words   |  7 PagesHigh School Musical, one flip on Seventeen Magazine, and one walk at a school hallway are all it takes to make a student be aware of how hell it feels like to be stared at and insulted by the other students if he/she wears this humongous thick glasses, knee-high socks, and clothes repeated last week. Media has influenced a lot of today’s trends and ideologies. Adolescents, being on the psychological level of self-identification, bring this perspective of fashion and social classes a t school. TheRead MoreSchool Uniforms Persuasive Essay1001 Words   |  5 PagesMake a Difference? If schools could automatically have more safety, a stronger sense of unity within students, and higher self esteem for every individual student at a minimal cost without transgressing any laws, or stepping over students rights it is doubtful that many would turn up their nose to all of these things. There is no difference between this situation and the benefits that school dress codes would provide. While the majority of public schools do not require uniforms, the ones that do reportRead More Supporting School Uniforms Essay1600 Words   |  7 Pageswhether it is right or wrong to be made to wear School uniform is what I will be discussing. This is an issue as people have conflicting views on why we should be forced to wear these clothes. The majority believe this to be a commendable notion whereas some think it isnt worth it. Despite some good points for opposing uniform, my overall view is that it is a good idea. One of the the most debatable and contraversial issues when opposing School uniform is that it removes individual identity. TheRead MoreSchool Uniforms And Schools Uniforms819 Words   |  4 Pagesas school uniforms, many are quick to deem them as unjust and avoidable. What these individuals do not know is that, in fact, school uniforms would enhance how the learning environment functions. Surely, when schools provide their students with uniforms, they are not providing their students with dreadful apparel, they are providing their students with an opportunity to change; whether it be a chance for a student to change their role academically, or a chance for a student to fit in. School uniformsRead MoreWe Are Not our Clothes - The Case for School Uniforms Essay1862 Words   |  8 PagesIn the middle of the school year, two new students walk through the doors of their new high school. The first student walks into the school with a worn out book bag, tarnished shoes, and notice ably older clothing, and is automatically judged by his peers on his wardrobe. The next student walks into the school wearing all of the latest name brands, expensive jewelry, and immediately she is judged as well. The student with the visibly â€Å"higher maintenance† wardrobe is instantly approached by anotherRead MoreDress Codes In the School System Essays1399 Words   |  6 PagesExpression have been thrown into the discussion, causing controversy in our communities. The dress code policy is considered to be a fix all solution in our schools, but has failed to curb the big issues. Dress codes should not be instituted to fix a particular problem, but should be looked at to help overall school reform. A school uniform policy does not have a significant influence on producing a safe learning environment or helping students achieve their goals. The beginnings of any type ofRead MoreSchool Uniforms Should Be Public Schools968 Words   |  4 Pages School Uniforms Parents around the globe have emphasized the controversy over school uniforms. During the school year of 2011-2012, one in every five school required students to wear school uniforms. America s first documented schools to inaugurate uniforms were in Maryland and Washington. Throughout the previous years in America, there have been numerous disputes whether school uniforms should be in public schools. In the last 30 years, public schools have often been hostilely compared to private

The Yellow Wall Paper And Barn Burning Essay - 1509 Words

In many different time periods throughout America’s history, there has been an overwhelming â€Å"norm† in society that depicts the male as the most dominate member of the household. Although this is not necessarily seen in today’s society, it is not rare to find this theme present in a large number of works studied in American Literature. Two authors that illustrate this pervasive theme in their short stories are Charlotte Perkins Gilman and William Faulkner. Despite the fact that these short stories were written almost fifty years apart, the protagonists in both Gilman’s â€Å" The Yellow Wall-paper† and Faulkner’s â€Å"Barn Burning† live in a society where they are severely conflicted because of their confinement to a patriarchal family dynamic. Although there is such a large gap in the time periods of the two short stories, with â€Å"The Yellow Wall-paper† being written in 1892 and â€Å"Barn Burning† being written in 1939, there are prevalent similarities on how these time periods affect society and both protagonists. In looking at the common theme for both time periods and their societies, the reader sees the clear role of the head, or male in the household. Both Gilman and Faulkner show how the subordinate family members are forced into submission. They must obey that primary male figure and his every demand. In â€Å"The Yellow Wall-paper,† the unnamed narrator, diagnosed with â€Å"hysteria,† is forced, by her husband John, into confinement. John traps her in a small room where she is allowed toShow MoreRelatedCharacter Analysis on the Conflicts and Themes of Godfather Death2303 Words   |  10 Pages  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã ‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Setting helps to create an atmosphere or mood, which refers to an enveloping or permeating emotional texture within a work. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ex: Descriptions of bright colors (red, orange, yellow) may contribute to a mood of happiness. The contrast of such bright colors with darkness and dark colors may invoke gloom or augment hysteria. 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Fiscal Federalism in Nigeria free essay sample

The question of an acceptable formula for revenue sharing among the component tiers of the Nigerian nation is one of the most protracted and controversial debates in the political and macroeconomic management of the economy. This debate has its foundations in the history and evolution of the Nigerian federation. â€Å"Revenue allocation or the statutory distribution of revenue from the Federation Account among the different levels of government has been one of the most contentious and controversial issues in the nation’s political life. So contentious has the matter been that none of the formulae evolved at various times by a commission or by decree under different regimes since 1964 has gained general acceptability among the component units of the country. Indeed, the issue, like a recurring decimal, has painfully remained the first problem that nearly every incoming regime has had to grapple with since independence. In the process, as many as thirteen different attempts have been made in devising an acceptable revenue allocation formula, each of which is more remembered for the controversies it generated than issues settled† Fiscal federalism refers to the scope and structure of the tiers of government responsibilities and functions as well as the allocation of resources among the tiers of government. We will write a custom essay sample on Fiscal Federalism in Nigeria or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Perhaps the most important issue of fiscal federalism is the revenue allocation formula, the sharing of national revenue among the various tiers of government (vertical revenue sharing) as well as the distribution of revenue among the state governments (that is, horizontal revenue allocation). The centralization of Nigeria’s fiscal federalism began with the report of the Dina Commission (1968) which argued that an appropriate revenue allocation system should result in a more equitable distribution of revenue among the states to achieve a balanced development of the federation. Revenue allocation can be described as a method(s) of sharing the centrally generated revenue among the different tiers of government and how the amount allocated to a particular tier is shared among its components. Nigeria is a federal state – under the federal system of government, federation or centrally-generated revenue is shared among the three levels of government, namely; the federal government, the states and the local governments. The theory of revenue sharing in a federal state is that each level of government receives an allocation of financial resources tailored to their specific requirements as defined by the mandate of legislative competence, their actual situation and the statutory indices of calculation. In Nigeria, decisions as to what proportion of centrally-generated revenue that would be retained by the federal government, the proportion that will be shared among the state governments and the proportion that will go to the local government has always been a problem, due to the fact that there is no consensus of opinion as to what could be seen as an ideal formula. The principles that guide the implementation of intergovernmental fiscal relations include: (a) The Principle of Diversity: The federal system must have the ability to accommodate a large variety of diversities. Hence, the fiscal system must provide scope for variety and differences to supply national, regional and local public goods. (b) The Principle of Equivalence: Based on the geographical incidence of different public goods, allocative efficiency requires the equalization of locational advantages arising from inter-jurisdictional differences with a combination of taxes and public goods and services. This requires the use of fiscal instruments for achieving macroeconomic objectives of growth, stabilization and full employment by residents of different geopolitical units; this requirement controls for what is often referred to as â€Å"central city exploitation thesis†. (d) Minimum Provision of Essential Goods and Services: This ensures that fiscal federalism guarantees all citizens, irrespective of where they reside, the minimum provision of ertain basic public goods and services. (e) Principle of Fiscal Equalization: In order to ensure a minimum level of public goods and services same degree of fiscal equalization is required. This is as a result of differences in resource endowment. (f) The Efficiency Principle: This principle implies that efficiency must be applied in the allocation of resources (g) The Principle of Derivation: The component units of a system should be able to control some of its own resources as they desire. h) The Principle of Locational Neutrality: Interregional fiscal differences tend to influence location choices of individuals and firms. Therefore, policy should focus on minimizing distortions due to some interference. Hence, differential taxes which create locational distortions should be avoided as much as practicable. (i) The Principle of Centralized Redistribution: This principle states that the redistribution function of fiscal policy through progressive taxation and expenditure programmes should be centralized at the federal level. That is, if the redistributive function is decentralized, it can result in distortions in location decisions. It should be noted that the above principles are not mutually consistent. There are several challenges and contending issues confronting intergovernmental fiscal relations in Nigeria: 1) Non – Correspondence Problem Ideally, each level of government should be given adequate resources to allow it discharge its responsibilities. Because this is not possible, there is usually a lack of correspondence between the spending responsibilities and the tax powers/revenue sources assigned to different levels of government. It is this incongruence that is often referred to as the non-correspondence problem. In Nigeria, most of the major sources of revenue come under the jurisdiction of the federal government yet lower levels of government are supposed to generate internal revenue. There is, therefore, the need to resolve the imbalance between assigned functions and tax powers. The issues concerning fiscal relations among the constituent units of the Nigerian federation that remain mostly unresolved are the divergence between assigned functions and tax powers, principle of horizontal and vertical revenue allocation, dependence of states and local governments on federal sources of funding, tendency towards concentration and federal presence in the states (Fadahunsi, 1998). The five principles currently applied in the horizontal revenue allocation formula are far from acceptable to all the stakeholders. 2) Fiscal Autonomy and Independence The issue of relative fiscal autonomy and independence of the state and local governments in a true federal structure goes with the corollary issue of the correspondence of governmental functions and revenue sources. Since the creation of the twelve-state structure in 1967, states and local governments have been excessively dependent on the Federation Account. This independence must be reduced if the federating units are to be free to pursue their own development goals without being hampered by the unpredictable fluctuations in their shares of the Federation Account. It is important that revenue sources should be reallocated and made compatible with the fluctuations stated for each tier of government to enhance steady and proper funding of administrative and developmental activities instead of the often experienced unexpected financial constrictions at the two lower tiers of government. 3) Oil Producing States, Oil Producing Local Government Administrative Areas or Communities Professor Omo Omoruyi in his treatise â€Å"the Politics of Oil: who owns the oil, Nigeria, states or communities† (2000) raised three salient questions on true ownership of oil in Nigeria. The question of local control over local resources is an established constitutional principle in federal systems. But the way the Nigerian federal system developed under the external colonial order (1954-60) and continued under the period of geo-ethno-military internal colonial order (1960-1999) and in the democratic dispensation between 1999 to date is yet an unresolved contending issues in the discourse about Nigeria’s federalism. He challenged the â€Å"Tripod† approach to Nigeria’s problem where the three major ethnic nationalities decide the content and the trend of national issues. This tripod approach to Nigerian politics, should have been done away with by now, with the introduction of the notion of ‘federal character’, which takes states in the federation as the units of representation. The tripod approach to Nigerian politics applies to how the oil, which comes from the non-majority areas, is approached in the political and economic discourse. We should also be aware of the feeling among the majority ethnic nationalities that the areas producing oil by virtue of powerlessness in the military and politics should not be allowed to lay claim to the oil from their areas as of right†. However, theres a distinction between oil producing communities and oil producing states. This is the basis of the activities of the Traditional Rulers of the Producing Communities who are dealing with the President and want the money due to states on the basis of the 13% derivation in the Constitution should be paid to the â€Å"oil producing communities/local government areas†. The Traditional Rulers’ argument is that â€Å"communities† own oil and not â€Å"states†. This is an unresolved issue and separates the communities in riverside areas directly affected by oil spillages from their compatriots in landed areas from enjoying the full benefits of allocations to producing states. One does not know the end of this argument. How should the National Assembly address this matter? The federal government should find a way of making the oil producing local government administrative areas as shareholders in the joint venture arrangements with the oil companies, thus making them stakeholders in the oil industry. There was the issue of who should be spending the oil money. Should it be the Nigerian government in conjunction with the oil producing areas? Should it be the oil producing areas alone? The Constitution from 1960 till after the civil war up till 1978 gave the right of ownership to the federal government but the proceeds were shared between the federal government and the regions or states on the basis of derivation like the agricultural crops. 4) Federation Account and the Derivation Fund It is important to define what constitutes the Federation Account – to which the various vertical revenue allocation formulae have been applied and what should be directly financed from it. Up to 1990, the amount accruing yearly to the Federation Account was still over 96% of totally federally collected revenue; but since 1991, when it first dropped to about 75% and nose-dived to around 35% by 1997, it showed no sign of recovery (Olowononi, 1999). It is therefore clear, that in such a situation, whatever the vertical formula applicable, there must still be a serious fiscal imbalance between the ederal government and the two lower tiers of government. It is crucial to redress this revenue imbalance in the spirit of balanced true federalism. What appears to account for this imbalance is the assertion of the self-claimed right by the federal government to finance various first-line charges from the Federation Account before the application of the vertical formula. The first-line charges include funding for external debt service, national priority projects, NNPC priority projects, special reserve account, and excess proceeds of the crude oil sales account, and in addition, the joint venture cash calls account. These deductions are made from the proceeds of crude oil sales before the derivation fund in the Federation Account is arrived at, and after which further deductions for special funds and the funding of the federal capital territory are made. It will seem more logical, with the exception of the joint venture case calls, that these various charges which are federal government obligations be financed solely from the federal government’s revenue proper, that is, from its share of the Federation Account or from its revenue from other sources. Therefore, in order to determine what constitutes the derivation fund, resolving the issue of the Federation Account is crucial. Thereafter, the derivation formula to be utilized can be arrived at. 5) Oil – Producing Areas and the Derivation Principle The crude oil production has been the most important economic activity in the Nigerian economy since the early 1970s is not subject to debate. Its impact is not limited to its contributing almost 90% of Nigeria’s total foreign exchange earnings but also to the fact that the national budgets are predicated on the expected annual production and price of crude oil.

List the fish and invertebrates you selected after the nitrogen cycling process free essay sample

Winning this scholarship will help me attain the goals that I have set for myself after high school. The scholarship would allow me to become one step closer to go to a great medical school and help me achieve my ultimate goal of becoming a neurosurgeon. This scholarship will also help make the colleges that I am considering more affordable, which will increase my chances of meeting my goals. Winning this scholarship can greater my chances of becoming the first person in my intermediate family to go to college right after finishing high school. I am a great pick for this scholarship because I had to move in with my father in the sixth grade after my mother was taken to Central State Hospital. Instead of using this information as an excuse, I use this for motivation and to make my mother proud of what I have become and what I will achieve during the later years of my life. We will write a custom essay sample on List the fish and invertebrates you selected after the nitrogen cycling process or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This is why I am a excellent choice for this scholarship. Winning this scholarship will help me attain the goals that I have set for myself after high school. The scholarship would allow me to become one step closer to go to a great medical school and help me achieve my ultimate goal of becoming a neurosurgeon. This scholarship will also help make the colleges that I am considering more affordable, which will increase my chances of meeting my goals. Winning this scholarship can greater my chances of becoming the first person in my intermediate family to go to college right after finishing high school. I am a great pick for this scholarship because I had to move in with my father in the sixth grade after my mother was taken to Central State Hospital. Instead of using this information as an excuse, I use this for motivation and to make my mother proud of what I have become and what I will achieve during the later years of my life. This is why I am a excellent choice for this scholarship. Winning this scholarship will help me attain the goals that I have set for myself after high school. The scholarship would allow me to become one step closer to go to a great medical school and help me achieve my ultimate goal of becoming a neurosurgeon. This scholarship will also help make the colleges that I am considering more affordable, which will increase my chances of meeting my goals. Winning this scholarship can greater my chances of becoming the first person in my intermediate family to go to college right after finishing high school. I am a great pick for this scholarship because I had to move in with my father in the sixth grade after my mother was taken to Central State Hospital. Instead of using this information as an excuse, I use this for motivation and to make my mother proud of what I have become and what I will achieve during the later years of my life. This is why I am a excellent choice for this scholarshiWinning this scholarship will help me attain the goals that I have set for myself after high school. The scholarship would allow me to become one step closer to go to a great medical school and help me achieve my ultimate goal of becoming a neurosurgeon. This scholarship will also help make the colleges that I am considering more affordable, which will increase my chances of meeting my goals. Winning this scholarship can greater my chances of becoming the first person in my intermediate family to go to college right after finishing high school. I am a great pick for this scholarship because I had to move in with my father in the sixth grade after my mother was taken to Central State Hospital. Instead of using this information as an excuse, I use this for motivation and to make my mother proud of what I have become and what I will achieve during the later years of my life. This is why I am a excellent choice for this scholarship. p.